English as a Second Language

As ESL students are integrated into age-appropriate classes, teachers face the challenge of meeting their needs as well as those of their English-speaking peers. It is common for teachers to ask themselves questions such as:

When first bringing ESL students into a mainstream class, some degree of special preparation is helpful. This can include:

ESL students who have been placed in a mainstream learning environment typically face a threefold challenge. They are simultaneously working to develop:

There are many possible ways in which teachers can adjust their instructional practice to help ESL students meet these challenges, without jeopardizing the learning of other students. Several adaptations are suggested here.⁵ These are based on the recognition that:

Teachers will find that many of the strategies and approaches suggested here also help enhance the learning achievement of English-speaking students in their class(es). While most can be applied or adapted for use in any classroom that includes ESL students, teachers will need to select from these strategies and approaches on the basis of their students' needs. It is important to note that, for funding purposes, where the only additional services provided to the students are adaptations within the mainstream classroom, there must be documentation of adaptations specifically designed to address the needs of the ESL student which are distinct from those that would normally be provided to address student differences. Some of the suggestions may work best with younger (e.g., primary and intermediate) students, while others might be more readily implemented with older students.

For ease of reference, the approaches and strategies have been grouped into two broad categories: those pertaining to how the teacher uses language to present information or interact with the students, and those pertaining to classroom procedures or instructional planning (i.e., provision of contextual supports to facilitate the learning of ESL and English-speaking students alike).

The Teacher's Use of Language

  provide additional "wait time" for student responses to questions
When asked a question, ESL students typically translate it into their first language, formulate an answer in their first language, and translate an approximation of the answer into English, before giving their response. They accordingly need more time to respond than do students whose first language is English.

  be conscious of the vocabulary you use
In English, everyday words of Anglo-Saxon origin are generally the easiest for ESL students to comprehend, because they hear and read these words frequently. However, speakers of Romance languages (Spanish, Italian, etc.) comprehend many of our Latinate words more readily because their own languages have the same etymological roots. For example, most ESL students won't understand "comprehend," but Spanish speakers will understand that word sooner than "understand."

  teach the language of the subject
In some subjects students not only encounter specialized vocabulary (e.g., photosynthesis in biology), but also language structures that occur with high frequency in that subject. For example, passive construction, though not frequently used in everyday discourse, is extensively used to describe processes in subjects such as Science and Social Studies (e.g., the experiment was carried out, the logs are felled and floated downstream, the ballots are counted). Subject-specific vocabulary also includes many words that have different meanings in specific contexts (e.g., mass has more than one meaning, including its very specific and precise meaning in physics). ESL students need to have these words explained in context, as the dictionary generally lists common meanings of words first, which tends to increase the learners' confusion. Cloze exercises based on lesson content (i.e., passages with important key words omitted for students to fill in) are a good way to reinforce ESL students' grasp of content and new vocabulary.

  simplify sentence structures and repeat sentences verbatim before trying to rephrase Short, affirmative sentences (no negatives) are easiest for new learners of English to understand. Complex sentences and passive verb constructions pose a greater challenge and should be used judiciously. ESL students will gradually become familiar with these more challenging constructions, if they are given help processing them. Explanations can be useful, but it is often a good idea to repeat verbatim difficult sentences containing important information and ideas. This gives students a second chance to process the same structure--something they don't get if they are presented too quickly with a rephrased version that may be just as challenging as the original sentence.

  rephrase idioms or teach their meaning
ESL students often translate idiomatic expressions literally. For example, a teacher might say "Take a stab at it," to encourage a student; the ESL students would be very confused by their literal interpretation of this. If someone uses an expression like this, rephrase it so that ESL students can attach meaning to it. Post a list of the week's idioms for students to see.

  clearly mark transitions during classroom activities
To avoid confusing ESL students when changing topic or focus, explicitly signal the changes (e.g., "first we will...", "now it's time for...")

Explanations and expectations need to be articulated explicitly and completely. Don't simply expect ESL students to "pick up on" assumptions, unstated premises, or subtle nuances of meaning.

  periodically check to ensure ESL students are understanding
ESL students may be reluctant to ask for clarification or to admit that they don't understand something, if asked directly (some may feel that it is disrespectful or an affront to the teacher to admit that they don't understand). To check for understanding, focus on students' body language, watching for active listening behaviours or for expressions or posture that indicate confusion or frustration. Bear in mind, however, that sometimes only later performance provides an accurate indication of the extent of students' understanding (see the earlier section on "Adjustment Challenges Facing ESL Students").

Contextual Supports for Linguistic Development

  write key words on the board and use visual and other non-verbal cues, wherever possible, to present key ideas
Concrete objects, charts, maps, pictures, photos, gestures, facial expressions, etc. form an important complement to oral explanations for ESL students. Advance organizers are sometimes useful cues for upcoming activities.

  provide written notes, summaries, instructions, and prereading
ESL students may not be able to process oral information quickly enough to understand fully or to make their own meaningful notes; your notes can highlight key ideas, new words, etc.; written instructions are particularly useful to students when homework or major projects are assigned.

  use the students' native languages to check comprehension and clarify problems
If you or some of your students speak some of the native languages of your ESL students, use the first language to clarify instructions, provide translations of key words that are difficult to explain in English, and find out what the students know but cannot express in English. Most ESL students will only need this additional support for a limited time or in rare situations.

Research indicates that the more highly developed a student's first language, the more successful they will be in acquiring a second. In fact, bilingual learners who continue to develop their first language have more success than those who focus entirely on acquiring English; there are also many benefits for students' self-esteem when they know that their primary language is valued.

  communicate interest in students' linguistic development and set expectations
Recognizing that all students use language to both grasp and formulate ideas, let ESL students know that their progress in learning the language is important to you. Give feedback and evaluation on this as well as on the other aspects of their learning related to particular subjects.

  respond to students' language errors
When students produce incorrect grammar or pronunciation, rephrase their responses so as to provide feedback on the content of what they say as well as a model of correct usage, without drawing specific attention to the error (e.g., "Canada have many natural resource." "Yes, Canada has many natural resources. Can you name some of them?" or "Whose own pen is this?" "I'm afraid I don't know whose pen this is."). In responding to students' written errors, try to focus on consistent errors of a specific type (e.g., lack of plural endings) and concentrate on modelling or correcting only that error. If you target each and every error, the student cannot easily see the logical rule that must be applied in particular situations and may become confused and overwhelmed. Always remember to focus on content first, however.

  use directed reading activities
Many students hope careful reading of the textbook will make up for what they failed to understand in class. Guided or directed reading assignments will help them read purposefully and to better effect than if they simply attempt to wade through a chapter with the help of a dictionary. With ESL students it is often better to discuss before they read, rather than the reverse. Consider:

• previewing the text (focusing on chapter headings, illustrations, glossaries, etc. so that students have a sense of the organization and content before they begin to read)
• providing a pre-reading question about the main idea(s) in the text as a focus for reading
• having students locate key words (e.g., technical terms) in the passage and use contextual clues to explain their meaning
• having students keep vocabulary notebooks to record subject-related words and explanations along with contextualized usage examples (these can be checked and evaluated two or three times during the year)
• providing follow-up questions that refer students back to the text to find details that support an argument or to draw inferences from their reading

  use audiotaped texts to combine aural and visual cues
Some teachers have created audiotapes of their own selected texts.

  establish a supportive environment for language learning
Talk to the whole class about the need for language learners to feel comfortable speaking English without fear of ridicule.

In most subject areas, ESL students should be able to grasp essential concepts, if these are presented carefully, emphasized through repetition, and clearly distinguished from finer points that the students are less able to fully assimilate.

  use cooperative learning strategies
Some ESL students may be unfamiliar with cooperative learning strategies or even culturally predisposed to reject them (see the earlier section on "Adjustment Challenges Facing ESL Students"). The rationale for cooperative learning may consequently need to be explained, and the related strategies may need to be explicitly taught.

Cooperative learning groups provide opportunities for ESL students to interact orally with their peers in a small, non-judgmental forum. ESL students are able to hear others use the language of the subject to review key points. They are also able to ask questions they might be reluctant to pose in front of the whole class. Research studies show that the use of carefully structured learning groups has many positive outcomes in terms of academic achievement, communication skills, race relations, the development of socially responsible and cooperative behaviour and attitudes, and self-esteem.

  encourage students to rehearse information or instructions orally
Students can work in pairs or small groups to explain or reinterpret instructions to each other. In this way, peers help ensure that everyone in the group understands.

  use peer tutoring
Use of peer tutors is especially helpful for integrating new arrivals and helping orient them to school and classroom routines. The approach works best if the students being paired are compatible, if specific responsibilities are assigned, and if some training and recognition are provided for those who undertake the tutoring. For example, a supportive student (perhaps a well integrated ESL student whose language skills are already quite developed) can be assigned to work with an ESL peer on a set of math problems, verbalizing each step of the process aloud. If the ESL student can verbalize the process at the end of a specified period, both students receive recognition.

  establish a homework club
A homework club is usually a safe, quiet environment for students to complete homework assignments.

ESL Students with Special Needs

ESL students have the same spectrum of abilities as any other cross section of the population. The fact that they may require extra assistance to learn the language of instruction does not exclude the possibility that they may need assistance in other areas as well. Some may have visual impairment, hearing deficiency, lack of psychomotor skills, or particular talents and gifts that demand consideration. These students have special needs, as defined by the Ministry of Education and will require IEPs of the sort described in Individual Education Planning for Students with Special Needs A draft resource guide to support teachers (Ministry of Education, 1995).

When engaging in educational planning for a Special Needs student for whom English is a second language, it is important to include an ESL specialist teacher on the IEP team. It may also be necessary to include on the team a bilingual individual who can facilitate home-school liaison. As participants in the planning process for ESL students who have special needs, these individuals may be able to help provide information or perspective on:

ESL Students with Other Requirements

Some students who are not formally designated as "special needs," nonetheless have personal circumstances that make learning difficult . These students include:

These students may require additional support and counselling.

Mohammed Mohammed is a thirteen-year-old student who was born in Somalia. During the time he spent in that country his schooling was very disrupted by civil strife. He and his family fled Somalia together, but Mohammed and his father became separated from other family members as they were trying to reach a refugee camp in Kenya. After they had arrived at the camp, his father went to look for the other family members and failed to return. Mohammed was in the refugee camp for three years before authorities located a distant relative who had made it to Canada. He now lives with her and her four children. Mohammed's parents and five siblings have not yet been located.

Assessing, Evaluating, and Reporting on Student Progress

Generally speaking, the best evidence of an ESL student's real, developing language proficiency comes from performance in class. Teachers who do not have extensive experience with ESL students need to keep in mind, however, that functioning all day in a second language is exhausting and demanding, especially for beginners. Homework can take these students two to three times longer to complete. Assignments should therefore be carefully chosen to emphasize important concepts and knowledge. More work isn't always better.

Short in-class "tests" can also yield useful information about students' understanding of both subject matter and language, provided teachers:

Evaluating ESL students' linguistic development on the basis of evidence gathered from class performance, homework assignments, and short in-class tests requires teachers to have some sense of the range of performances they can expect (i.e., a set of performance descriptors indicating different levels of linguistic ability). Teachers are free to use any system of performance descriptors they feel is appropriate, consistent with district policy and the practice of their colleagues in the school. The descriptors should address the four aspects of language development speaking/listening, reading, and writing. Two sample rating instruments listing performance descriptors for language development have been provided on the following pages. Classroom teachers may find these helpful in identifying students who may require ESL services or in tracking the progress of designated ESL students who have been placed in their mainstream classes. Some districts have also developed their own rating instruments for teachers to use. Teachers can find out about these from their district offices.

It may help to keep in mind that the classroom teacher's assessment and evaluation of students' language progress is mainly designed to:

Although the classroom teacher's assessment/evaluation of students' language progress can help inform placement and service decisions for ESL students, these decisions benefit from the input of an ESL specialist. This individual will typically conduct a complementary assessment at least once a year (see the section on "Identification -- Formal Assessment and Placement," as well as the section on "Finding and Using Resources -- Role of the ESL Specialist").

The ESL specialist should also be involved in preparing formal communication with ESL students and their parents or guardians concerning student progress in using the language. The specialist's input is especially important if the school intends to use letter grades for reporting on student progress with respect to language learning, since letter grades are appropriate only where the ESL students are expected to meet the provincially prescribed learning outcomes for a particular subject, or expected to meet the learning outcomes for courses in a locally developed program.

Characteristics of Students' Oral/Listening Skills⁶
(What they Indicate about Proficiency Level)

Student name:

Date:

Age:

Grade:

Length of time in Canada:

Length of time at                       school:

Teacher(s):

First language or languages other than English:

FOCUS	Emerging	Beginning	Developing	Expanding	Proficient	Independent	Fluent
READING	· listens to read-alouds · can repeat · recognizes sound-symbol relationships	· can do choral reading · can retell simple texts · uses some phonics and/or other decoding skills	· can retell a complete story beginning, middle, end · recognizes plot, character, and events	· can read independently · can read aloud · can "read between the lines" (i.e., draw appropriate inferences)	· reads independently · relates reading to personal experience · uses a variety of reading strategies · recognizes literary elements and genres	· reads for enjoyment · reads and completes a wide variety of texts · responds personally and critically to texts · matches a wide variety of reading strategies to purpose
WRITING	· uses single words, pictures, and patterned phrases · copies from a model · exhibits little awareness of spelling, capitalization, or punctuation	· writes predominantly phrases and patterned or simple sentences · uses limited or repetitious vocabulary · uses temporary (phonetic) spelling	· writes in present tense and simple sentences; has difficulty with subject-verb agreement; run-on sentences are common · uses high-frequency words; may have difficulty with word order; omits endings or words · uses some capitalization, punctuation, and transitional spelling; errors often interfere with meaning	· able to write an entire paragraph · writing exhibits inconsistent use of a variety of verb tenses, subject-verb agreement errors, and limited use of transitions, articles, and prepositions · vocabulary is appropriate to purpose, but sometimes awkward · uses punctuation, capitalization, and mostly conventional spelling; errors sometimes interfere with meaning	· writes multiple paragraphs, as necessary · is generally able to present a main idea with supporting detail · uses appropriate verb tenses; errors in sentence structure do not detract from meaning · uses varied vocabulary appropriate fro the purpose · makes few mechanical errors (errors of spelling, punctuation, and capitalization) and seldom any that detract from meaning		· writes single or multiple paragraphs with a clear introduction, fully developed ideas, appropriate transitions, and a conclusion · uses appropriate verb tenses and varied sentence structures · uses varied, precise vocabulary · makes only occasional mechanical errors, none of which detract from meaning

7 adapted from Figure 5.8 and Figure 2.5 in O'Malley, J. Michael and Lorraine Valdez-Pierce, Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners: Practical Approaches for Teachers (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996), which in turn are based on materials drafted by ESL Teachers Portfolio Assessment Group, Fairfax County Public Schools, Virginia Previous | Contents | Next