IMPROVING SCHOOL SUCCESS FOR FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE SCHOOL SUCCESS OF FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS?

Report on First Nations Students (Second Annual), First Nations Education Council, School District No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson), Kamloops, October 1997 Literacy in elementary and secondary is a problem. Many self-select themselves into easier courses. Drop out is rate higher.

Attendance and Absenteeism: A Recent Local Example Summarized, a local secondary school
In one local secondary school in this school year, the absentee rate for First Nations students group 20% higher than the non-First Nations student population. First Nations and non-First Nations students failing one or more courses exhibited similar attendance behaviours in that they both exceeded the average school absentee rate by about 11%.

Long term Effects on High School Seniors of Learning to Read in Kindergarten, Ralph A. Hanson, Donna Farrell, Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4, December 1995
All students who learned to read in Kindergarten were found superior in reading skills and in all other educational indicators as seniors in high school. Regrettably, the gains made by Native American students were significantly lower than other minorities: Blacks - 13.5%, Asians - 10.5%, Hispanics - 7.0% Native Americans - 3.0%

High School Completion Rates by Native American, Suzanne B. Riles,
Northwest Regional Educational Lab, Portland, November 1995
A national study in the U.S.A. showing a 29.2 drop out rate

Student Achievement among Native Students in British Columbia, Ian Cameron, Canadian Journal of Native education, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1990
Among 36 secondary schools in B. C., those having high Native enrollment had higher dropout rates, lower graduation rates, and lower participation rates on Grade 12 government examinations when compared with lower Native enrollment schools.

Socio-Economic Indicators in Indian Reserves and Comparable Communities 1971-1991, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1997
Socio-economic equivalent communities were compared. Educational outcomes were all but equal in most respects except one: the dropout rate in the First Nations communities was very much greater.

The Learners of British Columbia (Commissioned Papers: Volume 2),
Ronald Marx, Tarrance Grieve, British Columbia Royal Commission on Education, Victoria, May 1988.
At all grade levels and on all academic measures, Native students are receiving failing grades. Surprisingly though, a smaller proportion are enrolled in special education programs or are receiving learning assistance. A greater percentage, however, are enrolled in non-academic programs.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS IN SCHOOL?

American Indians Out of School: A Review of School-Based Causes and Solutions, Jon Reyhner, Journal of American Indian Education, May 1992
Instead of blaming social and economic factors and the student victim, this writer turns the dropout focus to the failings of the school system: large schools, uncaring and untrained teachers, passive teaching methods, inappropriate curriculum, inappropriate testing/student retention, tracked classes, and lack of parent involvement.

The District-wide Improvement Project and the Development of School Improvement Strategies by the Lac La Rouge Indian Band, J. Tim Goddard, Prince Albert Tribal Council, November 1991
Describes a community-based, bottom up, model aimed at sensitizing schools to their cultural environment. Needs assessment surveys drove the model that concerned First Nations run schools.

Cultural and Parental Influences on Achievement among Native America Students in Barstow Unified School District, Dorothy M. Leveque, California, 1994
An analysis of mean percentile scores of norm-referenced test data showed that Native American students in Barstow scored as well as or better than the total student population in all areas except second and third-grade reading in 1992. The long established and historically driven assimilation of the Barstow families into the majority culture was seem as the deciding success factor.

Visions of the Heart: Canadian Aboriginal Issues, "Aboriginal Education at the Crossroads: The Legacy of Residential Schools and the Way Ahead",
Chapter 10, Jean Barman, Harcourt Brace Canada, 1993
The authors describe how the early acceptance of First Nations students into B. C. public schools by teachers and community school boards, was disrupted by intervention of the federal government who saw all Canadian Native peoples as being the same. They financed and set up reserve base schools that took the children from their communities and isolated them from the non-First Nations population. That this isolation from the mainstream community and the isolation of children from families has greatly affected family perceptions of schooling remains to impact on today's students.

Criticism of Current Assessment Measures, Roger Bordeaux, ERIC Digest, September 1995
Skill mastery, student portfolios and attitudinal measures are concluded to be better indicators with which to judge student progress. Standardized norm-based testing is no longer accepted as the best method for determining learner success.

Student's Background and its Relationship to Class and Program in School, Board of Education, Toronto, 1970
Occupation of the head of the household more often then not determines success at school. For instance the likelihood of a child of an engineer or lawyer completing secondary school is 89.7 percent, of a child of a labourer is 46.5 percent and of a mother on welfare is 21.4 percent.

A Legacy for Learners: The Report of the Royal Commission on Education, "Educational Opportunities for First Nations Children", 8.C.4, Commissioner: Barry M. Sullivan, Victoria, 1988
The proportion of lone-parent families, predominantly headed by females, is double that of the provincial population as a whole. They have lower participation rates in the labour force and work for lower salaries. Etc.,

A Legacy for Learners: The Report of the Royal Commission on Education, Summary Report, "First Nations Children", pp. 57 - 58, Commissioner: Barry M. Sullivan, Victoria, 1988
Recommendation 23 through 26 covering First Nations learners are described.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT LEARNING TO READ AND FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS?

Report on Reading Recovery (First Nations Students), Joan Saunders (Reading Recovery Teacher Leader), School District No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson), Kamloops, March 1998

Reading Recovery: An Independent Evaluation, Timothy Shanahan, Rebecca Barr, Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4, October-December 1995
Although students make better than expected gains, the program is less effective in maintaining the gains and more costly than has been claimed. Difficulty in properly assessing because selection process placing children in the program are not consistent so research results of most studies are tainted. About 30% do not meet the average achievement criteria by the end of Grade 1.

INSIGHTS INTO TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION, Dr. Lloyd Ollila, Primae Areas, Vancouver, 1982
An interview with Dr. Walter MacGinitie which summarizes research on how children learn to read. The context of comprehension instruction should always be one which the child is reading something meaningful and important and which he/she feels a need to understand. MacGinitie doesn't believe that thinking of reading comprehension as a series of skills is useful. However, an emphasis on the mechanics of reading may translate into better comprehension scores in the primary grades.

Reading and Language Arts Curricula in Elementary and Secondary Education for American Indians and Alaska Natives, Gerald L. Brown, Indian Nations at Risk Task Force, Washington, D.C., 1991
The tradition of textbook driven learning does not take into account that dialects of English often exist in Native homes, dialects which are an integral part of the child's personal identity. The authors suggest ways to teach children with limited native proficiency in English. What he describes is a treatise on how most good teachers adjust their teaching to meet the needs of individual children.

Beating the Odds: Navajo Children Becoming Literate, David Hartle-Schutte, Hawaii, 1990
From a very small sample of identified successful fifth grade readers, the author concludes that home conditions, low income, single parenting, alcoholism, employment, linguistic differences nor limited print in the home prevented success for the group of children studied. Extensive family involvement is seen as the determiner.

Supporting Emergent Literacy among Young American Indian Students, William Ross McEachern, ERIC Digest, 1990
Links development of listening comprehension with emergent reading comprehension of young American Indian students. Culturally relevant materials and accommodation of possible linguistic diversity where English as a dialect might be found.

School Readiness and Children's Developmental Status, Nicholas Zills et al, ERIC Digest, December 1995
Although existing preschool programs help emerging literacy and numeracy, they do not appear to help behaviour, speech and health difficulties. When compared to low family income; low maternal education, minority language status, and family structure are better predictors of development, accomplishment and difficulties.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT SCHOOL RETENTION AND FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS?

The Dropout, C. D. Paravantes, School District No. 73 (Kamloops/Thompson), Kamloops, 1990
Local statistics in 1989-90 asked students their reasons for dropping out. They reported: Work - 65.5%, Alternate Education - 24.1% and Pregnancy - 10.3%. Those in the Storefront School reported: Teacher Problems - 23%, Lack of Interest - 4%, Poor Attitude - 6%, Poor Grades - 19%, Work - 4%, Trouble with Law - 10%, Failed Grade - 10%, Lack of Options - 6%, Personal Problems - 13%, Health - 2%, Sports - 4%. Overall, Poor School Fit accounts for 71%: a discontinuity between school goals and student goals.

Dropout Prevention, Indian Nations at Risk Task Force, Washington, D.C., October 1990
In order of frequency, students drop out because of: poor grades, school attendance, drugs & alcohol, self esteem, abuse and neglect, physical and sexual abuse, defeatist attitude, discipline problems in school, pregnancy, young parents lacking parenting skills. Students haven't failed, the systems created have failed them. We need to restructure our systems and organizations. The study noted that one third of Grade 8 students were academically unprepared for secondary.

An Examination of Native Education in British Columbia (Draft), E. R. Atleo, Native Brotherhood of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1993
The Native student has a healthy self-image, which is contrary to prevailing opinions and views held by education observers. The context of heritage, home and society are positive, but that of the school less positive. Although 85.1% of students consider themselves capable in school, there is 33.7% discrepancy between expectations and performance. Homework completion is identified as a major culprit, especially in Grade 9 to 12. This same paper examines school readiness noting that the discrepancy between First Nations and others has all but disappeared in recent years to make almost entry equivalency.

Plans for Dropout Prevention and Special School Support Services for American Indian and Alaska Native Students, Jon Reyhner, Indian Nations At Risk Task Force, Washington, D.C., 1991
Traditional Native orientation is not a handicap in regard to school success. Schools need to provide both the closeness and culturally appropriate curriculum that Native at risk students need to succeed. There is also a need for ways to allow the bus students to participate in before and after school study and activities. Block programming might be used so as to create more curricular and extra-curricular flexibility. A definition of "parent involvement" that moves out past the parent as policeman to educating parents about the function of school. Etc.,

Native American Youth at Risk Study, Ardy Sixkiller Clarke, Montana State University, Montana, 1994
Examines personal, cultural, school, and family factors contributing to the decision of an American Indian student to remain in school until graduation or dropout. Those who dropped out demonstrated significant differences in self-esteem, frequency of skipping, teacher expectations and attitudes, and grade retention. Graduates reported family expectations (particularly of mother and grandmother) kept them at school.

The Use of the Self-Directed Search to Identify American Indian High School Dropouts, Eldon M. Gade et al, School Counselor, Vol. 39, No. 4, March 1992
There was an above average dropout rate for American Indian girls who held Realistic and Social interest preferences. Boys with Enterprising codes had above average dropout rates. Girls with Investigative interests and boys with Conventional interests had the lowest dropout rates.

Survey of Secondary Student School Experiences, Del Turner, First Nations Education Council: School District 73 (Kamloops/Thompson), May 1998
See Appendix A.

Dropping Out among American Indian and Alaska Natives; A review of Studies, Kren Swisher, Michelle Hoisch, Journal of American Indian Education, Vol. 31, No. 2, January 1992
Describes difficulties in obtaining accurate statistics because of small sample size. Emphasizes structural disadvantages rather than "cultural discontinuity" as the major influences to drop out.

Leadership Characteristics: A Comparison of Junior High School Students, Peggy Roupe, Journal of American Indian Education, Vol. 26, No. 3, May 1987
Study indicated that leadership perceptions of both Indian and non-Indian students were similar.

Is Cultural Discontinuity an Adequate Explanation for Dropping Out? Susan Ledlow, Journal of American Indian Education, Vol. 31, No. 3, May 1992
The exclusive focus on culture and curricular innovation obscures the possibility that economics and social structure may be more important factors.

Career Counseling for Native Youth, R. Vance Peavy, Canadian Guidance and Counseling Foundation, Ottawa, 1994
Life and career path for some Native youth is often unbelievably chaotic and unpredictable, especially to transitional individuals. Psychometric approaches to counseling are inappropriate. Characteristic of a good counselor for Native youth are: best-friend who knows when to speak, personal but non-invasive, trustworthy, accessible on drop-in basis, involved in Native presence in school, known to the community and know family members by name, patient, accepting and humorous. The counselor need not be a Native, but must have an unbiased knowledge of Native culture. Etc.,

Using Simulations to Enhance Career Education, ERIC Digest, Kathleen Cairns, 1995
An emphasis on computer-managed, information based programs career programs provides little in the way a realistic examination of what career choices might bring to a student. In recent years, experiential career programs like work experience, job shadowing and co-op education have also been introduced, but they are often complex and difficult to arrange and manage. Carefully designed career simulations can be very effective additions to any program to serve as a link between information and the workplace.

Middle Years Reading Instruction: Suggested Principles, Victor Froese, The Reading Teacher, 1981
Meaning comes from an interaction of experience, language competence, and visual or auditory information. Reading instruction in the middle grades requires a shift in instructional technique with less emphasis on code and more on comprehension. The principles in the article also apply to those middle school students requiring remedial instruction.

School Dropouts: New Information About an Old Problem, Wendy Swartz, ERIC Digest, August 1995.
Nearly two thirds leave before Grade 10. They comprise nearly half of the heads of households on welfare and a similar percentage of the prison population. More than half moved during the four-year study period. Nearly a quarter change schools two or more times. One fifth were held back a grade. Half missed at least 10 days of school. One third cut class at least 10 times. One third got school suspensions or were put on probation. Dropouts tended to believe they don't have control over their lives. Most frequently reported intervention by schools was to try to talk a student into staying, but even this effort happened only 39% of the time.

Blueprints for Indian Education: Improving Mainstream Schooling, Robin A. Butterfield, ERIC Digest, June 1994
Describes the steps needed to assure successful accommodation of First Nations students into mainstream schooling. A shift in ways teachers support students, proactive accommodation of differing support methods, and infusion of cross-cultural programming, shift of teaching styles, improved assessment methods, etc.,

Schools as Communities, ERIC Digest, Mark A. Royal, Robert J. Rossi, 1997
The quality of relationships in schools has been found to link to academic success and school retention. A strong sense of community has benefits for both staff and students. A sense of community is characterized by: shared values, common activities, ethos of caring, collegial interactions and teacher roles that extend outside of classroom duties. Six attributes: respect, caring, inclusiveness, trust, empowerment and commitment. Results are less misbehaviour (class cutting, reduced absenteeism), more academic interest, greater achievement gains, and reduced number of dropouts. The key finding is that "at-risk students are provided with a community of support".

A favourable school structure should not be relied upon to produce a strong sense of community. Alternatively, adopting such changes can be quite disruptive and must be rooted securely in the commitment of teachers.

Assessing Students' and Teacher Sense of the School as a Caring Community, William Roberts et al, 1995
Found that schools where teacher felt a strong sense of community were not necessarily ones where students felt the same: teacher and student perceptions differed.

Family Role in Career Development, Bettina A. Lankard, ERIC Digest, 1995
The socioeconomic factor and educational experience of parents is the strongest determiner of outcomes. However, family processes in relation to life roles can be a strong determiner, too. Structuring or guiding parent involvement in adolescent career development is seen as an important element of school career counseling. It is recommended that counselors work directly with parents, collaborating with them and helping them improve their effectiveness in guiding their children. intervention should take place as early as Grade 6.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHING METHODS AND THE SUCCESS FIRST NATIONS STUDENTS?

Ways of Learning, Learning Styles and First Nations Students: A Teacher Resource, Arthur J. More, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1998
The author argues that Native learners learn better if learning styles thought to result from Native family, cultural traditions and life ways are taken into account. The study offers no concrete data supporting the cultural-style link, no thesis showing cultural traits can be generalized over several nations, nor any evidence that learning improves when the thesis is applied.

*see also Hispanic-American Students and Learning Style, ERIC Digest, Shierly Griggs and Rita Dunn, ERIC, May, 1996. A Critical Review of Kolb's Learning Style Inventory, Thomas Ruble et al, ERIC ED377221, 1994 and Learning Style Research: A Critical Review of the Literature, Cesarina Thompson and Eileen Crutchlow, ERIC EJ458722, 1993

The Relationship Between Academic Achievement and Teacher Expectations of Native Children in a Northern Manitoba Community School, W. Rampaul, M. Sigh, J. Diddyk, Selected Papers from the Mokakit Conference, Vancouver, 1986
The well established direct relationship between teacher expectations and academic outcomes is applied and confirmed as applicable to the First Nations group under study.

Indian Students' Academic Self-Concept and Their Perceptions of Teacher and Parent Aspirations for Them in a Band Controlled and a Provincial School, Cheryl Senior Wall, Paul R. Madak, Canadian Journal of Native education, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1991
Students in a Lil'wat Nation tribal school perceived that parents and their favorite teacher held educational aspirations for them significantly higher than those perceived by public school students. These student perceptions were not tied to outcomes

Multicultural and Racism Awareness Programs for Teachers: A Meta-Analysis of the Research, Josette McGregor ands Charles Underleider, University of British Columbia, 1993
An analysis of cross-cultural and the racist sensitivity methods showed that ways of changing the racial prejudice of teachers has yet to be devised. When participants were all from the majority culture, the outcomes were more certain. Overall, despite the best intentions, 30% of the effect sizes were negative. The researchers concluded that better preparation is need by those who design and deliver such sessions, with a need to better understand how attitude and behaviour changes take place.

Classroom Practices That Enhance Student's Sense of Community, Dong-Il Kim et al, American Educational Research Association, 1995
The study investigates "sense of community" as the integrating factor which promotes attachment to school norms and values. The strong link between classroom practice and sense of community show that these practices do so: emphasis on pro-social values, elicitation of student thinking and expression of ideas, encouragement of cooperation, warmth and supportiveness, and reduced use of extrinsic control. Resulting student behaviours were engagement, influence and positive behaviour.

WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRICULUM CONTENT AND FIRST NATIONS STUDENT ACCEPTANCE OF PUBLIC SCHOOL GOALS?

British Columbia Schools and Society (Commission Papers: Volume 1), John Calam, Thomas Fleming, British Columbia Royal Commission on Education, Victoria, May 1988
Cultural identity suffers when content is missing from classroom: both native and non-native students need to acquire respect for native heritage.

Curriculum in the Schools of British Columbia (Commissioned Papers: Volume 3), David F. Robitaille, Antoinette A. Oberg, Valeria J. Overgaard, J. Terrence McBurney, British Columbia Royal Commission on Education, Victoria, May 1988
All curricular materials should include material dealing with the unique character of Native society, and make clear the past and continuing contributions of Native Indians to Canadian society.

Culturally Responsive Curriculum, Ismat Abdal-Haqq, ERIC Digest, June 1994
Discusses opposing views: retaining heritage and improving intercultural harmony vs. divisive because it fragments development of a common culture (an American issue). When adopted, however, the article warns against "side bar" applications as in textbook layouts.

Teaching with a Multicultural Perspective, ERIC Digest, Rey A, Gomez, 1991
The early childhood teaher is the key to successful multicultural education. The culture, opinions and attitudes of caregivers during pre-school and early school experiences greatly affect child's perceptions: children easily develop stereotypes during these early years. There need not be a separate, unified set of goals and curriculum to have effective multicultural education, however, attaching positive feelings to multicultural experiences must be an outcome.

Grade 8 - 10 Social Studies, "Society and Culture", Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Victoria, 1998
Describes prescribed learning outcomes for society and culture units as part of the 8 - 10 curriculum

The Social Studies 11 Curriculum, Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Victoria, 1998
Describes the Grade 11 social studies curriculum, a required course for graduation.

B.C. First Nations Studies 12, Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Victoria, 1998
Describes an elective Grade 12 course covering First Nations history, culture and issues.

Integrating BC First Nations Studies: A K-10 Guide for Teachers Response Draft 1996, Ministry of Education, Skills and Training, Victoria, 1996
Proposed curriculum topics intended to be integrated into other classroom studies. Comprehensive in scope and detailed in content.